Brandon, L. & Brandon, K. (2008). Paragraphs & Essays with Integrated Readings. Houghton Mifflin Company

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Chapter 16 Writing the Research Paper

The Research Paper Defined

The research paper is a long documented essay based on a thorough examination of your topic and supported by your explanations and by both references to and quotations from your sources. The traditional research paper in the style of the Modern Language Association, typically called MLA style, includes a title page (sometimes omitted), a thesis and an outline, a documented essay (text), and a list of sources (called "Works Cited," referring to the works used specifically in the essay).

Ten Steps to Writing a Research Paper

Step 1 Select a Topic
Select a topic and make a scratch outline. Then construct a thesis as you did for writing an essay by choosing what you intend to write about (subject) and by deciding how you will limit or focus your subject (treatment). Your purpose will be wither to inform (explain) or to persuade (argue).

• Your topic should interest you and be appropriate in subject and scope for your assignment.
• Your topic should be researchable through library and other relevant sources, such as the Internet. Avoid topics that are too subjective or are so new that good source material is not available.
  

Step 2 find Sources
Find sources for your investigation. With your topic and its divisions in mind, use the resources and the electronic databases available in your college library and on the Internet to identify books, articles, and other materials pertaining to your topic. The list of these items, called bibliography, should be prepared on cards in the form appropriate for your assignment. From Books, Printed Material Other Than Books, and Computerized Indexes and Other Online Services.

Step 3 List Sources
List tentative sources in a preliminary bibliography

Bibliography and Works Cited, MLA Style
You will list source material in two phase of your research paper project: the preliminary bibliography and the Works Cited list. The MLA research paper form is commonly used for both the preliminary bibliography and the list of works cited. This format is unlike the format used in catalogs and indexes.

Step 4 Take Notes
Take notes in an organized fashion. Resist the temptation to write down everything that interests you. Instead, take notes that pertain to divisions of your topic as stated in your thesis or scratch outline. Locate, read, and take notes on the sources listed in your preliminary bibliography. Some of these sources need to be printed out from electronic databases or from the Internet, some photocopied, and some checked out. Your notes will usually be on cards, with each card indicating key pieces of the information:

A. Division of topic (usually Roman-numeral part of your scratch outline or the divisions of your thesis)
B. Identification of topic (by author's last name or title of piece)
C. Location of material (usually by page number)
D. Text of statement as originally worded (with quotation marks; editorial comments in brackets), summarized or paragraph (in student's own words, without quotation marks), and statement of relevance of material, if possible.

Step 5 Refine Your Thesis and Outline
Refine your thesis statement and outline to reflect more precisely what you intend to write.

Step 6 Write Your First Draft
Referring to your thesis, outline, and note cards keyed to your outline, write the first draft of your research paper.

Step 7 Revise Your First Draft
Evaluate your first draft and amend it as needed (perhaps researching an area not well covered for additional support material and adding or deleting sections of your outline to reflect the way your paper has grown).

Use the writing process guidelines as you would in writing any other essay.

Step 8 Prepare Your Works Cited Section
Using the same form as in the preliminary bibliography, prepare a Works Cited section (a list of works you have referred to or quoted and identified parenthetically in the text).

Step 9 Write your final Draft
Write the final version of your research paper with care for effective writing and accurate documentation. The final draft will probably include the following parts:

• Title pager (sometimes omitted)
• Thesis and outline (topical or sentence, as directed)
• Documented essay (text)
• List of sources used (Work Cited)

Step 10 Submit Required Materials
Submit your research paper with any preliminary material required by your instructor. Consider using a checklist to make sure you have fulfilled all requirements.

Source: Brandon, L. & Brandon, K. (2008). Paragraphs & Essays with Integrated Readings. Houghton Mifflin Company.

Chapter 15 Argument: Writing to Persuade

Writing Argument

Persuasion is a broad term. When we persuade, we try to influence people to think in a certain way or to do something.

Argument is persuasion on a topic about which reasonable people disagree. Argument involves controversy. Whereas exercising appropriately is probably not controversial because reasonable people do not dispute the idea, an issue such as gun control is. In this chapter, we will be concerned mainly with the kind of persuasion that involves argument.

Techniques for Developing Argument
Statements of argument are informal or formal.

For a well – structured college paragraph or essay, an organizing plan is desirable. Consider these elements when you write an argument, and ask yourself the following question as you develop your ideas:

• Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?
• Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?
• Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with exceptions? If, for example, I am in favor of using animals for scientific experimentation, am I concerned only with medical experiments or with any use, including experiments for the cosmetic industry?
• Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?
• Support: In addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?

This is the most commonly used pattern for an essay, which is abbreviated for a paragraph:

Background
Proposition
Refutation (often omitted)
Support 1
Support 2
Support 3
Emphatic restatement of proposition

Your Audience
Your audience may be uninformed, informed, biased, hostile, receptive, apathetic, sympathetic, and empathetic – any one, several, or something else. The point is that you should be acutely concerned about who will read your composition. If your readers are likely to be uninformed about the social and historical background of the issue, then you need to set the issue in context. The discussion of the background should lead to the problem for which you have a proposition or solution. If your readers are likely to be biased or even hostile to your view, take special care to refute the opposing side in a thoughtful, incisive way that does not further antagonize them. If your readers are already receptive and perhaps even sympathetic, and you wish to move them to action, then you might appeal to their conscience and the need for their commitment.

Kinds of Evidence
In addition to sound reasoning generally, you can use these kinds of evidence: facts, examples, statistics, and authorities.

First, you can offer facts. Some facts are readily accepted because they are general knowledge – you and your reader know them to be true, because they can be or have been verified. Other “facts” are based on personal observation and are reported in various publications but may be false or questionable.

Second, you can cite examples. Keep in mind that you must present a sufficient number of examples and that the examples must be relevant.

Third, you can present statistics. Statistics are numerical facts and data that are classified and tabulated to present significant information about a given subject.

Fourth, you can cite evidence from, and opinions of, authorities. Most readers accept facts from recognized, reliable source – governmental publication, standard reference works, and books and periodicals published by established firms. In addition, they will accept evidence and opinions from individuals who, because of their knowledge and experience, are recognized as experts.

In using authoritative source as proof, keep these points in mind:

• Select authorities who are generally recognized as experts in their field.
• Use authorities who qualify in the field pertinent to your argument.
• Select authorities whose views are not biased.
• Try to use several authorities.
• Identify the authority's credentials clearly in your essay.

Logical Fallacies
Certain thought patterns are inherently flawed. Commonly called logical fallacies, these thought patterns are of primary concern in argument.

Eight kinds of logical fallacies are very common.

1. Post hoc,ergo proter hoc (“after this, therefore because of this”): When one event precedes another in time, the first is assumed to cause the other. “If A comes before B, then A must be causing B.”
2. False analogy: False analogies ignore differences and stress similarities, often in an attempt to prove something.
3. Hasty generalization: This is a conclusion based on two few reliable instances.
4. False dilemma: This fallacy presents the readers with only two alternatives from which to choose. The solution may lie elsewhere.
5. Argumentum ad hominem: (argument against the person): This is the practice of abusing and discrediting your opponent rather than keeping to the main issues of that argument.
6. Begging the question: The fallacy assumes something is true without proof. It occurs when a thinker assumes a position is right before offering proof.
7. Circular reasoning: This thought pattern asserts proof that is no more than a repetition of the initial assertion.
8. Non sequitur: This fallacy draws a conclusion that does not follow.


Source: Brandon, L. & Brandon, K. (2008). Paragraphs & Essays with Integrated Readings. Houghton Mifflin Company.

Chapter 14 Definition: Clarifying Terms

Writing Definition

Most definitions are short; they consist of a synonym (a word or phrase that has about the same meaning as the term to be defined), a phrase, or a sentence. For example, we might say that a hypocrite is a person "professing beliefs or virtues he or she does not possess." Terms can also be defined by etymology, or word history. Hypocrite once meant "actor" (hypocrites) in Greek because an actor was pretending to be someone else. We may find this information interesting and revealing, but the history of a word may be of no use because the meaning has changed drastically over the years. Sometimes definitions occupy a paragraph or an entire essay. The short definition is called a simple definition; the longer one is known as an extended definition.

Techniques for Writing Simple Definitions
If you want to define a term without being abrupt and mechanical, you have several alternatives. All of the following techniques allow you to blend the definition into your developing thought.

• Basic dictionary meaning.
• Synonyms.
• Direct explanation.
• Indirect explanation.
• Analytical or formal definition.

Techniques for Writing Extended Definitions
Essay of definition can take many forms. Among the more common techniques for writing a paragraph or short essay of definition are the patterns we have worked with in previous chapters. Consider each of those patterns when you need to writ an extended definition. For a particular term, some forms will be more useful than others; use the pattern of patterns that best fulfill your purpose.

Each of the following questions takes a pattern of writing and directs it toward definition:

• Narration
• Description
• Exemplification
• Analysis by division
• Process analysis
• Cause and effect
• Classification
• Comparison and contrast
  

When you use prewriting strategies of develop ideas for a definition, you can effectively consider all the patterns you have learned by using modified clustering form. Put a double bubble around the subject to be defined. Then put a single bubble around each pattern and add appropriate words. If a pattern is not relevant to what you are defining, leave it blank. If you want to expand your range of information, you could add a bubble for a simple dictionary definition and another for an etymological definition.

Order
The organization of your extended definition is likely to be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on the subject material, you may use just one pattern of development for the overall sequence. If so, you would use the principles of organization discussed in previous chapters.

Introduction and development
Consider these ways of introducing definition. With a question, with a statement of what it is not, with a statement of what it originally meant, or with a discussion of why a clear definition is important. You may use a combination of these ways or all of them before you continue with your definition.

Development is likely to represent one or more of patterns of narration, description, exposition (with its own subdivisions), and argumentation.

Whether you personalize a definition depends on your purpose and your audience. Your instructor may ask you to write about a word from a subjective or an objective viewpoint.

Source: Brandon, L. & Brandon, K. (2008). Paragraphs & Essays with Integrated Readings. Houghton Mifflin Company.

Chapter 13 Comparison and Contrast: Showing Similarities and Differences

Writing Comparison and Contrast

Defining Comparison and Contrast
Comparison and contrast is a method of showing similarities and differences between subjects. Comparison is concerned with organizing and developing points of similarity; contrast serves the same function for difference. In some instances, a writing assignment may require that you cover only similarities or only difference. Occasionally, and instructor may ask you to separate one from the other. Usually, you will combine them within the larger design of your Paragraph or essay.

Working with the 4 Ps
Regardless of nature of your topic for writing, you will develop your ideas by using a procedure called the 4 Ps: purpose, points, patterns, and presentation.

Purpose:
In most of your writing, the main purpose will be either to inform or to persuade.

Informative writing:
If you want to explain something about a topic by showing each subject in relationship with others, then your purpose is informative.

Persuasive Writing:
If you want to show that one actor, one movie, one writer, one president, one product, or one idea is better than another, your purpose is persuasive.

Points:
The points are the ideas that will be applied somewhat equally to both sides of your comparison and contrast. They begin to emerge in freewriting, take on more precision in brainstorming, acquire a main position in listing, and assume the major part of the framework in the outline.

Patterns
Two basic pattern of organization: (1) subject by subject (opposing) or (2) point by point (alternating). In long pagers you may mix the two patterns, but in most college assignments, you will probably select just one and make it your basic organizational plan.

Use this basic outline for the subject by subject pattern:
I. Subject X
A. Point 1
B. Point 2
II. Subject Y
A. Point 1
B. Point 2
Use this basic outline for the point by point pattern:
I. Point 1
A. Subject X
B. Subject Y
II. Point 2
A. Subject X
B. Subject Y

Presentation

• Give each point more or less equal treatment. Attention to each part of the outline will usually ensure balanced development.
• Use transitional words and phrases to indicate comparison and contrast and to establish coherence.
• Use a carefully stated topic sentence for a paragraph and a clear thesis for an essay. Each developmental paragraph should have a topic sentence broad enough to embrace its content.
  
  

Source: Brandon, L. & Brandon, K. (2008). Paragraphs & Essays with Integrated Readings. Houghton Mifflin Company.

Chapter 12 Classification: Establishing Groups

Writing Classification

To explain by classification, you put persons, places, things, or ideas into groups or classes based on their characteristics. Whereas analysis by division deals with the characteristics of just one unit, classification deals with more than one unit, so the subject is plural.

To classify efficiently, try following this procedure:

• Select a plural subject.
• Decide on a principle for grouping the units of your subject.
• Establish the groups, or classes.
• Write about the classes.

Selecting Subject
When you say you have different kinds of neighbors, friends, teachers, bosses, or interests, you are classifying; that is, you are forming groups.

In naming the different kinds of people in your neighborhood, you might think of different grouping of your neighbors, the units. For example, some neighbors are friendly, some are meddlesome, and some are private. Some neighbors have yards like Japanese gardens, some have yards like neat – but – cozy parks, and some have yards like abandoned lots. Some neighbors are affluent, some are comfortable, and some are struggling. Each of these sets is a classification system and could be the focus of one paragraph in your essay.

Using a Principle to Avoid Overlapping
All the sets in the preceding section are sound because each group is based on a single concern: neighborly involvement, appearance of the yard, or wealth. This one concern, or controlling idea, is called the principle. For example, the principle of neighborly involvement controls the grouping of neighbors into three classes: friendly, meddlesome, and private.

Establishing Classes
As you name your classes, rule our easy, unimaginative phrasing such as fast/medium/slow, good/ average/bad, and beautiful/ordinary/ugly. Look for creative, original phrases and unusual perspectives.

Using simple and complex forms
Classification can take two forms: simple and complex. The simple form does not go beyond main division in its grouping.

Outline:

Subject:
Principles:
Classes: I. Class one
II. Class Two
III. Class Three

Complex classification are based on one principle and then subgrouped by another related principle.


Source: Brandon, L. & Brandon, K. (2008). Paragraphs & Essays with Integrated Readings. Houghton Mifflin Company.

Chapter 11 Cause and Effect: Determining Reasons and Outcomes

Writing Cause and Effect

Cause and effects deal with reasons and results; they are sometimes discussed together and sometimes separately. Like other forms of writing to explain, writing about causes and effects is based on natural thought processes. The shortest, and arguably the most provocative, poem in the English language – “I/ Why?" – is posed by an anonymous author about cause. Children are preoccupied with delightful and often exasperating "why" questions. Daily we encounter all kinds of causes and effects. The same subject may raise questions of both kinds.

Example:

The car won't start. Why? (Cause)

The car won' start. What now? (Effect)

Exploring and Organizing
One useful approach to developing a cause – and – effect analysis is listing. Write down the event, situation, or trend you are concerned about. Then on the left side, list the causes; on the right side, list the effects. From them you will select the main causes or effects for your paragraph or essay.

The outline should look like:

Causes Event, Situation, or Trend Effects
1. ...................................................1.

2. ...................................................2.

3. ...................................................3.

4. ...................................................4.

As you use prewriting techniques to explore your ideas, you need to decide whether your topic should mainly inform or mainly persuade. If you intend to inform, your tone should be coolly objective. If you intend to persuade, your tone should be subjective. In either case, you should take into account the views of your audience as you phrase your ideas. You should also take into account how much your audience understands about your topic and develop your ideas accordingly.

Composing a Topic or a Thesis
You have listed your ideas under causes and effects, you are ready to focus on the causes, on the effects, or, occasionally, on both. You controlling idea, the topic sentence or the thesis, might be one of the cause.

Writing an Outline
Your selection of a controlling idea takes you to the next writing phase: completing an outline or outline alternative. There you need to

• Consider kinds of causes and effects.
• Evaluate the importance of sequence.
• Introduces ideas and work with patterns.

Paragraph of causes

Topic sentence
I. Cause 1
II. Cause 2
III. Cause 3

Essay of effects

Thesis
I. Effect 1
II. Effect 2
III. Effect 3
IV. Effect 4




Considering Kinds of Causes and Effects
Causes and effects can be primary or secondary, immediate or remote.

Primary or Secondary
Primary means "major," and secondary means "minor.” A primary cause may be sufficient to bring about the situation (subject). For example, infidelity may be a primary (and possibly sufficient by itself) cause of divorce for some people but not for others, who regard it as secondary. Or, if country X is attacked by country Y, the attack itself, as a primary cause, may be sufficient to bring on a declaration of war. But a diplomatic blunder regarding visas for workers may be secondary importance, and, through significant, it is certainly not enough to start a war over.

Immediate or Remote
Causes and effects often occur at a distance in time or place from the situation. The immediate effect of sulfur in the atmosphere may be atmospheric pollution, but the long – range, or remote, effect may be acid rain and the loss of species. The immediate cause of the greenhouse effect may be the depletion of the ozone layer, whereas the long – range, or remote, cause is the use of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons, commonly called Freon, which are found in such items as Styrofoam cups). Even more remote, the ultimate cause may be the people who use the products containing Freon. Your purpose will determine the causes and effects appropriate for your essay.

Evaluating the Importance of Sequence

Order
The order of the causes and effects you discuss in your paper may be based on time, space, emphasis, or a combination.

• Time: If one stage leads to another, as in a discussion of the causes and effects of upper atmospheric pollution, your paper would be organized best by time.
• Space: In some instances, causes and effects are best organized by their relation in space.
• Emphasis: Some cause and effects may be more important than others.

Introducing Ideas and Working with patterns
In presenting your controlling idea – probably near the beginning for a paragraph or in an introductory paragraph for an essay – you will almost certainly want to perform two functions:

• Discuss your subject. For example, if you are writing about the causes or effects of divorce, begin with a statement about divorce as a subject.
• Indicate whether you will concentrate on causes or effects or combine them. That indication should be made clear early in the paper. Concentrating on one – causes of effects – does not mean you will not mention the other; it only means you will emphasize one of them. You can bring attention to your main concern(s) – causes, effects, or a combination - by repeating key words such as cause, reason, effect, result, consequence, and outcome.

Source: Brandon, L. & Brandon, K. (2008). Paragraphs & Essays with Integrated Readings. Houghton Mifflin Company.